Free The Formation Of Classical Societies In Persia And China Essay Example

The development of agriculture has resulted in the rise of more complex societies based on the division of labor, social differentiation, militarization and establishment of fundamental cultural and religious traditions. The period between 500 B.C.E. and 500 C.E. marked the evolution of classical societies in Persia, China, India and the Mediterranean basin.

THE EMPIRES OF PERSIA

The arid land of Iran has become the cradle of the Persian civilization that was based on the achievements of early Mesopotamian society. During the millennium the territory of Persian Empire was ruled by four different dynasties – the Achaemenids (558-330 B.C.E.), the Seleucids (323-83 B.C.E.), the Parthians (247 B.C.E.-224 C.E.), and the Sasanids (224-651 C.E.).
The Persians’ imperial venture was launched by Cyrus the Achaemenid. He united the tribes of Meds and Persians and brought the territory of Iran under control. His successors expanded the territory of Persia by conquering wealthy Egypt and other territories in both east and west directions. The impetuous expansion of the empire has lead to the introduction of territorial division and local self-rule administrations. The hierarchical unity of the lands was supported by significant military forces, standard laws and taxation system. The Achaemenid legacy included the construction of trade routes, the issue of standard coins and introduction of postal service which enabled Achaemenids to maintain influence throughout the conquered lands. Achaemenids were quite tolerable towards cultural traditions of regions under their control.
The dawn of Achaemenid domination on Persian territory was marked by Alexander of Macedon, who invaded Persia in 334 B.C.E. and defeated the Persian army. The Seleucids, the successors of Alexander the Great continued to rule the empire retaining the system of administration and taxation created by Achaemenids. The Seleucids have founded new cities and attracted Greek colonists to occupy them which promoted trade and cultural benefits. Eventually the Seleucids lost many regions due to opposition from native Persians. The Parthians, which occupied the eastern Iran, presented themselves as restorers of Persian tradition and revolted from Seleucid overlord in 238 B.C.E. By 155 B.C.E. they consolidated their hold on Iran and conquered a large part of Mesopotamia. Likewise their predecessors, they used the Achaemenid political and economic structure to cease control over the territories. However, the regions were less centralized and more responsibilities lied on clan leaders. The Parthians’ hegemony was weakened by internal rebellions and Roman pressure. The Sasanids tried to restore the Achaemenid Empire, however external conflicts with Romans and Kushan Empire has resulted in annexation of Persian territories into Islamic empire in the seventh century C.E.
The Persian legacy seizes a number of innovations including introduction of complex cosmopolitan society with prevalence of bureaucratic class and merchants. The imperial prosperity was built on the agricultural success and trade relations. Persians used slave power from the conquered lands which enabled massive construction of roads and new settlements. Zoroastrianism founded by a priest called Zarathustra prevailed in the religious life of Persians. His teachings promoted honesty and morality and were popular among aristocracy and ruling elites. This religion survived both Macedonian invasion and Parthian reign and served the basis for further religion tendencies.

THE UNIFICATION OF CHINA

The instability of late Zhou dynasty led to the Period of Warring States (403-221 B.C.E) until the territories of China were united under the rule of Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E. The unification of China was a complex process strongly influenced by the evolution of philosophic and political thought present by Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism.
Kong Fuzi, or Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) is considered to establish the Chinese political and cultural traditions based on moral, ethical and political principles. His state-centered doctrine of social activism has found many successors that spread the Confucianism all over China. Daoism, on the contrary, was concerned on the studying the fundamental principles of the world and nature. The main concept of Daoism was the Dao, or the way the cosmos is ordered. The political position of Daoists was simple – the less government the better; they encouraged small self-sufficient societies rather than large imperial structures. The Legalism disregarded the principles of Daoism and Confucianism, concerning on the importance of the state. Legalists placed emphasize on agriculture, military forces and strict laws (therefore Legalists). The Legalism key principles became the foundation of the Qin dynasty.
The state of Qin has reached a dominant political, economic and military organization in the fourth and third centuries B.C.E. The ruler of Qin kingdom proclaimed himself the Emperor of China in 221 B.C.E. and established the long-term tradition of imperial rule in China. Similar to Persian Empire, the Qin dynasty reigned on the principals of centralized bureaucracy and strong armed forces. Despite short eleven years of rule, the first Emperor has greatly contributed to the centralization of China by building roads, defensive walls and irrigation systems, unifying laws, measures and currencies thus encouraging trade. The Chinese script was also standardized which greatly contributed to the diffusion of political, scientific and cultural knowledge. Soon after the First Emperor death the Qin dynasty was overthrown by revolting masses.
The imperial rule was quickly restored by Liu Bang in 206 B.C.E. that has marked the origins of Han dynasty hegemony. The Han dynasty appeared to be the most influential in all of Chinese history lasting for four hundred years. It inherited the Legalists’ principals of state regulation. While cultivation of grains and vegetables was the main source of economic stability, the iron metallurgy and silk textiles became high priority industries. Han craftsmen also invented paper giving boost to the development of writing traditions in China. The economic prosperity and technological innovation resulted in significant population growth – by 9 C.E. the dynasty has totaled in sixty million of people.
The Former Han period has encountered a number of economic and social difficulties that eventually collapsed the dynasty. The military maintenance required large funds generated by gradually rising taxes and confiscation of land and property. The social tensions were caused by enormous gap between rich and poor social classes. A small share of extremely wealthy land owners accumulated most of the imperial land in their possession which discouraged economic growth and conceived rebellious tensions and banditry among unprivileged social groups. Despite a number of unsuccessful attempts to perform more equitable distribution of land, the Later Han dynasty was weakened and disintegrated by constant rebellions. By the second century C.E. the Han Empire has collapsed by dividing into several large kingdoms.

Works sited

Bentley, Jerry H. "The Empires of Persia." "The Unification of China." Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2008. 456. Print.