Korean Buddhism Research Paper Example

History of Korean Buddhism

Buddhism was first introduced from China and Central Asia during the Three Kingdoms Period (1st – 7th century) when Silla, Baekje and Goguryeo fought for control. Back then Buddhism largely intrigued the Korean kingdoms, mostly because of its close relation to other aspects of Chinese civilization, leading to its prompt adoption by each kingdom for the purpose of modernizing their country and providing a spiritual medium of protection for the state. Goguryeo was the first kingdom to adopt it as the state religion in 372 due to its close proximity to China; Baekje quickly followed in 384. Silla was the last one to adopt the new religion: it occurred only in the 6th century. A certain level of resistance by its own aristocracy, as well as its physical remoteness from China played their part. All in all, Buddhism provided a civilizing influence on Korea due to its political and cultural ties with China, and helped to further the prosperity of the kingdoms on the peninsula.
In the place of Unified Silla, which fell into decay in the 10th century, a new kingdom emerged. As opposed to its predecessor, Goryeo politically preferred Confucianism, following in the footsteps of their neighbors in Sung Dynasty China. Oddly enough, Confucianism and Buddhism managed to reach a temporary balance: Confucian teachings focused on politics and culture, whereas Buddhism provided spiritual counsel in the form of teachings on achieving peace of mind, and the afterlife. However, tensions arose within Buddhism itself, between the textual schools, and the new contemplative schools called Seon, and Japanese Zen schools. Additionally, the Chinese school of Tian-tai took root in Goryeo under the name of the Cheontae School. The Seon schools were drawn to the Chongtae teachings and invigorated by it, leading to the emergence of the Jogye Order. Nowadays it is by far the largest sect of Buddhism in Korea.
The Goryeo Kingdom eventually crumbled in 1392, which led to Korea’s reunion under the Yi Family and the longest and most culturally significant dynasty in the history of Korea – the Joseon Dynasty. Unfortunately, they constituted an era of decadence for Buddhism due to the rise of Neo-Confucianism among the ruling family. For generations, the representatives of the Joseon Dynasty imposed increasingly harsher measures to suppress Buddhism. From time to time, a ruler took interest in Buddhism, which led to its brief revival, but the general suppression policy went on for generations.
In the late 1800’s, Japan’s international ambitions resulted in an increasingly aggressive stance toward Korea, which reached its climax when Korea’s government was forced to become a protectorate of Japan in 1905, and five years later signed away all the Joseon Dynasty’s remaining power to Japan’s Imperial government. Since the 1800’s, Japanese government had been consistently proving its hostility towards the Japanese Buddhism by implementing the new Nikujiku Saitai Law, which pressured Buddhist priests to marry and eat meat and resulted in violation of established celibacy and dietary traditions. Similar policies were imposed in Korea for the purpose of disrupting resistance from its Buddhist establishments. It caused Buddhism and Korean religion in general to become increasingly nationalistic as it sought to resist Japanese control.
After the founding of the DPRK and the adoption of a Stalinist-Communist style of government in North Korea, Kim Il-Sung began promoting his own Juche (self-reliance) teachings with the intention of replacing any and all pre-existing religions and philosophies in Korea. Such policy led to an almost complete eradication of Buddhism in the North, a nominal number of followers and some state-run institutions mainly centered on historical sites excluded.
Undergoing a series of military dictatorships until the 1980’s, life in South Korea eventually stabilized, which led to Buddhism’s revival. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, monks from the Seon school reorganized and re-asserted traditional Buddhist monastic institutions previously suppressed by the Japanese. Thus the Jogye Order, descended largely from the ancient Jogye sect from the Kingdom of Goryeo, was formed again. Another related group, the Taego Order, branched off the Jogye Order in 1970 (it is now the second largest in South Korea). Both orders maintain their Seon heritage, one principal difference between the two orders being the aspect of celibacy of its priests (the Taego Order allows its priests to get married).

Korean Buddhist Art

Architecture
Naturally, the analysis of the Korean Buddhist architecture is going to be focused on the temple architecture. A temple compound includes a multitude of different buildings. No two Buddhist temples are alike, for they vary from grandiose main Buddha Halls to tiny Mountain Spirit Shrines perched on the sides of mountains. However, each one is built in such a manner, so that the aerial view of the temple forms a mandala, and the main hall as the central element of the temple is amplified by the juxtaposition of the other buildings of the compound. The main hall is the heart of a temple complex, therefore its construction is conducted with special care and ceremony. It is highly ornamented and decorated to enhance the beauty of its complex architecture. Almost every temple includes a separate Mountain Spirit Shrine in its complex. This is the peculiarity pertinent solely to Korean Buddhism, for the legend says that the mountain spirit, the resident spirit long before Buddhism, arrived in Korea, has territorial rights to the mountain and consequently gets a higher place in the temple compound. A lot of temples include separate buildings for the Recluse and for the Seven Star Spirit (Big Dipper) as well.
Traditionally, temples are built of wood, with no nails used. Frequently, the whole tree trunks are merely interlocked. Such construction serves a particular purpose: the buildings are easy to dismantle and move to different locations. The Buddhist architecture closely follows key Buddhist spiritual principles, for each piece of the building depends on all of the others and the whole depends on each part. Cement is being more widely used in the cities, but still made to look like the traditional wood complex. Then there are the roofs, which pose special interest. Layer upon layer of whole tree trunks of varying girth are interlaced to produce the strength necessary to support the heavy tiles. For the purpose of maintaining aesthetic proportions, they are often tiered and gabled to an extreme degree. It is based on traditional belief that evil travels in straight lines. So in order to stop it from entering the temple the ends of the roofs are curved up. The temple builders are so intent on preserving the traditional atmosphere that they even go so far as to make the washing and toilet facilities in the same style as the other buildings.

Sculpture

Sculpture in Korean Buddhism is mostly represented by the various depictions of Buddha. Most statues are made of cast bronze, gilded with gold leaf and gold powder, although many ancient statues were made of cast iron or wood. Historical period of construction, Buddhist sect, affluence – all these factors play a part in the positions, sizes and gestures of statues at any given temple. The most common Buddhas to be found are:

Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha usually depicted with a bare shoulder and hands in his lap or one touching the floor;

Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha, usually depicted holding his index finger;
Amitabha, the Buddha of light and of the Western Paradise - usually golden;
Maitreya, the Future Buddha, usually in a posture of reflection: the Laughing Buddha of the Chinese;
Bhaisagyaguru, the Medicine Buddha, always white, usually holds a bowl for medicine.
Sometimes there is also a shrine set up for the enlightened disciples of the Buddha, which mostly look like small Buddhas and are often white.

Painting

According to the traditions of Korean Buddhism, there is a special style used for painting palaces and temples. It is called "tanch'ong", which translates as "red and blue", as these are the dominant colours used for the creation of colourful designs of cosmic nature, widely associated with Buddhism. The patterns of tanch’ong creatively evolved in Korea, even though they originated from China. Tanch'ong not only adds glory and magnificence to the temples, it also plays a practical role: it protects the material from insects and destructive influence of the forces of nature. Intricate tanch'ong patterns cover the entirety of the ceilings, the inside rafters, as well as the outside eaves of the temples. There are various pictures to be found among the rafters and on the main temple beams, for instance images of Bodhisattvas, monks of ancient times, spirits, dragons, among others.
Korean Buddhist art is not only beautiful; it is abundant with meaning as well. The paintings are always brimming with symbols: meaning and beauty interrelate between themselves in order to guide the guests of the temple on their spiritual quest, serving as a reminder of the path. Three circles are usually located up towards the roofs of big buildings, on their outside ends. They symbolize earth, heaven and man. Those are the three vital things that the mythical founder of Korea, Tangun, is believed to have fetched with him. Now they mostly emblematize the Buddha, as well as his teaching and the Buddhist community. Another common Buddhist symbol, well known on a worldwide scale, is the lotus, which is found in Korean Buddhist art in a variety of forms. The general meaning of it lies within the fact that the lotus grows from dirt, which represents ignorance, up to sunlight, which represents enlightenment.

Bibliography

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